Sessions

The application of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or drones) is gaining increasing importance in precision livestock farming (PLF), particularly for the remote assessment of animal health, behavior and welfare. However, UAV presence itself may influence the animals’ behavior. The aim of this study was to evaluate behavioral responses of cattle to UAV exposure under different flight conditions and to determine whether repeated exposure was associated with habituation.

The study was conducted at the Dóra Major cattle farm of the University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest and involved three experimental groups with a total of 36 cattle. Across three experimental sessions, 90 UAV flights were performed using two DJI Mavic 3T drones. Flights were conducted at altitudes of 10, 20, 30, and 40 m above ground level and at flight speeds of 3 and 6 m s⁻¹. Behavioral responses were assessed using a four-point ethogram-based scoring system. Data were analyzed using cumulative link mixed models and binary mixed-effects models.

Flight altitude had a significant effect on behavioral responses. Relative to flights conducted at 40 m, the odds of a higher behavioral response category increased 5.30-fold at 30 m, 53.81-fold at 20 m, and 97.65-fold at 10 m. Model-estimated probabilities of a behavioral response were 0.8% at 40 m, 4.2% at 30 m, 30.9% at 20 m, and 44.3% at 10 m. No statistically significant difference was detected between flight speeds of 3 and 6 m s⁻¹. In contrast, behavioral responsiveness decreased progressively with repeated exposure, with each additional exposure associated with a 30.6% reduction in the odds of a higher behavioral response category, indicating habituation. Sex, age, and breed were not significantly associated with the observed behavioral responses.Under the conditions of the present study, flight altitude emerged as one of the principal determinants of behavioral disturbance during UAV-based cattle monitoring. Operating at higher altitudes, particularly 30–40 m, was associated with lower behavioral responsiveness, whereas flights at 20 m or below showed substantially stronger responses. The observed reduction in responsiveness across repeated exposures further suggests that habituation may contribute to minimizing disturbance over time. These findings support the development of standardized, species-specific UAV monitoring protocols aimed at balancing data acquisition requirements with minimal behavioral interference and appropriate animal welfare considerations.